From allies to enemies, the two states eventually reconciled.
Context
My aim here is to summarize the history and chronology of general Bulgarian-Serbian relations from the beginning of the 19th century. It is then a chronological overview. Why this period? It’s a very interesting period because in the span of 200 years, new states emerged with a lot of new expectations and ambitions. It is marked by cooperation, rivalry, betrayal, alliances, enmities, and reconciliation. This period is easier to study and grasp those centuries since they are closer to us and more documented.
Disclaimer: this article doesn’t claim to rival the works already done on this subject that I used and will be referencing.
Introduction
Bulgarian-Serbian relations do not date back to 1800, but almost 1000 years before that. They have always been turbulent, since the states have been neighbours and have had territorial, political and cultural claims that have opposed them.
Since 1800, Bulgaria and Serbia, under their different names and political statuses (and there have been many!), have gone from being sisters united in the fight against the Ottoman Empire to enemies. Since the communist period, they added some water to their wine and now maintain cordial relations based on understanding and cooperation.
The resistance and struggle of Bulgaria and Serbia against the Ottoman Empire: 19th century
The Ottoman Empire was present in the territories of present-day Bulgaria from 1396 to 1878, i.e. for 500 years. For Serbia, between almost 500 years in the south and 150 years in the north, in Vojvodina. It was from the eighteenth century onwards and especially in the nineteenth century that Bulgarians and Serbs forged a national, cultural, linguistic and ethnic consciousness. The two peoples are Slav and Orthodox neighbours and speak two languages of the same family. And they were both under Ottoman rule (the “Ottoman yoke” as it is often referred in these territories).
The Serbs rebelled against Ottoman rule on several occasions in the early 19th century. Bulgarians helped in the Serbian uprisings of 1804 and 1815. In the following decades, the Serbs then came to help the Bulgarians. They welcomed the Bulgarian rebels, offering them asylum, training and military support. Some of them, Bulgarian and Serbian, even had the idea of creating a common Balkan state, bringing together at least Serbia and Bulgaria.
Liberation of the Balkans: 1877-1879
The Balkans were partially liberated and freed from Ottoman rule in 1877-1878. Serbs, Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Romanians, Macedonians, Greeks and Russians all took part in the liberation of the region. As everyone had their own territorial claims, it was impossible to satisfy everyone.
In 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano pleased many of them, especially Bulgaria, but not the Western powers. They signed the Treaty of Berlin a few months later. It canceled the formation of new autonomous Balkan states, such as Bulgaria, and cut back on those that had been newly formed, such as Serbia. It frustrated many and nourished feelings of revenge.
The Principality of Serbia and the new Principality of Bulgaria gained their independence. The province of Eastern Rumelia (in the south of present-day Bulgaria) gained autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. Few were satisfied. Some had territorial ambitions, like Bulgaria and Serbia over the region of Macedonia. And territorial claims were and always would be a cause of tension and conflict between Bulgaria and Serbia.
The end of the Bulgarian-Serbian entente in 1878
In the aftermath of the Treaty of Berlin, relations between Serbia and Bulgaria deteriorated as a result of a number of disputes. First of all, there was the question of Macedonia (today’s North Macedonia): to whom did it “belong”? To the Serbs? Not to mention the Greeks, who were also eyeing this territory.
Then, in 1882, the Principality of Serbia became the Kingdom of Serbia. In 1885, the Principality of Bulgaria and the province of Eastern Rumelia united to form the Principality of Bulgaria.
In response to the reunification of the two Bulgarian entities, the Kingdom of Serbia declared war on the new Bulgarian Principality. This was the Serbo-Bulgarian War, which lasted from November 1885 to March 1886 and was won by the Bulgarians. It was seen on both sides of the border as “a stab in the back” and marked the end of almost a century of fraternal relations.
Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: Bulgaria and Serbia allies, then enemies
As often the case, military and political alliances changed according to the aspirations and interests of each side. And the question of Macedonia was always at the centre of the Balkan Wars. The territory of present-day North Macedonia was still part of the Ottoman Empire in 1912. Serbs, Bulgarians and Greeks wanted a piece of it (or all of it). They all add arguments to justify their ambitions and future actions: Greece the argument of ancient history; Bulgaria the arguments of language, ethnicity and history; Serbia the argument of history.
Following the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908, the Balkan neighbours felt that it would be a good idea to join forces against the big neighbouring empires. And also that it was time to put an end to the Ottoman presence in the Balkans, after more than 500 years.
To do so, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece united against the Ottoman Empire. It was also an opportunity for Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece to take parts of Macedonia, in addition to other territorial conquests. The war ended in 1913 with the Treaty of London which satisfied no-one, especially in regards of the borders.
Tensions centred on Macedonia, of course. Everyone waited, and eventually it was Bulgaria that attacked Serbia and started the Second Balkan War. Bulgaria accused Serbia of not respecting the border divisions agreed between the two states before the war. Serbia occupied more than it had been promised.
Yesterday’s friends became today’s enemies for Bulgaria. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, the Ottoman Empire and a newcomer, Romania, went to war against Bulgaria. Bulgaria lost the conflict and some of the territories it had acquired a few months earlier. The 1913 Treaty of Bucharest divided Macedonia between Serbia and Greece. It also marked the end of the Russo-Bulgarian alliance and made Serbia being the last Russia’s ally in the Balkans and during First World War.
First World War
Bulgaria’s defeat, frustrations and desire for revenge partly led it to side with the Entente in 1915, after the Second Balkan War and the end of the alliance with Russia. Bulgaria claimed territories from Serbia, Greece and Romania. Serbia, as we know, was at war with Austria-Hungary and was an ally of Russia. Serbia and Bulgaria were once again on opposite sides, with Bulgaria on the side that lost the war.
Second World War
Once again, Bulgaria and Serbia followed opposite paths in this war, although they were less visible. Yugoslavia, the new South Slavic state whose Serbia was a constituent part, was invaded and then dismantled in 1941 by the Axis, including Bulgaria that just sided with Germany. However, Yugoslav Partisans of all nationalities fought against the occupiers and liberated the Yugoslav territories.
Bulgaria, which had joined the Axis a few weeks before the invasion of Yugoslavia (and Greece), helped to dismember the Yugoslav Kingdom. In this process, it annexed almost all of Macedonia (and Dobrudja from Romania, Thrace and part of Greek Macedonia from Greece). It also occupied a large part of Serbia in the south.
But for the third time in a row, Bulgaria was on the side that lost the war. The Red Army invaded Bulgaria which then declared war on the Axis, while the Partisans liberated Serbia from the occupying forces. This difference is an important point that would shape the post-war period.
The post-war period and the opposite trajectories of Bulgaria and Serbia
At the Moscow Conference in 1944 and the Yalta Conference in 1945, zones of influence were defined. Yugoslavia received half Western influence and half Soviet influence, while Bulgaria received respectively 1/4 and 3/4.
Moreover, Josip Broz Tito, the leader of Socialist Yugoslavia, refused Yugoslavia’s demands for obedience to the USSR and Stalin. In 1948, ties were cut between the two. The USSR excluded Yugoslavia from the Kominform and Tito turned towards the West, while maintaining a socialist regime in Yugoslavia.
Bulgaria, which had been invaded and liberated by the Red Army in 1944, was ruled by a Soviet government from 1944 to 1945. In 1946, the monarchy was officially abolished and Bulgaria became the People’s Republic of Bulgaria, a communist state and regime.
Bulgaria and Yugoslavia were then following opposite paths: Bulgaria turned towards the USSR and a strict communist regime, while Yugoslavia turned towards the West (even though it was a Non-Aligned country) while maintaining a relatively open communist regime.
Cold War, communist Bulgaria and Serbia
One was oriented towards the USSR, the other towards the West, and both were communist. One represses more than the other. Both were led by a man who remained in power for 35 years: Todor Zhivkov from 1954 to 1989 in Bulgaria, and Josip Broz Tito from 1944 to 1980.
During these 50 years of socialism, the two states maintained limited relations due to their different ideologies and spheres of influence. However, they cooperated on cultural and scientific levels.
Tito and Dimitrov, the first leader of the People’s Republic of Bulgaria, signed the Bled agreements in 1947. These agreements envisaged the creation of a Balkan Federation, including Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. However, once again, the Macedonian question was the main reason for abandoning this project.
Yugoslav wars, 1990s
Bulgaria has been a capitalist, parliamentary republic since 1989. Yugoslavia remained communist for two more years.
When Yugoslavia collapsed in 1991, Bulgaria supported the independence of Slovenia and Croatia. Macedonia declared independence the same year, and Bulgaria was, despite everything and their history, the first state to recognise it.
With the fall of communism in the Balkans, relations between Bulgaria and Serbia remained at odds as a result of the reversal of their international orientation. Serbia turned towards Russia, while Bulgaria turned towards the West.
Kosovo 1998-1999, 2008
During the Kosovo-Serbian conflict, Bulgaria opened its airspace to NATO operations and bombing raids on Serbia. Bulgaria, or at least its government, did not support Serbia. Popular opinion in Bulgaria was less unanimous. Part of the population supported the Serbs, who was also of Orthodox faith. Another part of the popular opinion, pro-EU and pro-NATO, supported NATO and the West against Serbia.
Kosovo declared its independence in 2008. Bulgaria recognised it, which strained tensions between Bulgaria and Serbia. At the time, relations between the two states were once again tense. Despite this, the two countries have been free of tension and conflict for many years.
And what is the current state of relations between Bulgaria and Serbia?
During my visits to Bulgaria and Serbia, in conversations with Serbs and Bulgarians, I observed a number of things. I have to say that, as I don’t frequent the far right (nor the far left), I don’t know what their supporters think.
What I often hear is: “Yes, we’re not the same, but we’re still similar”. In other words: Balkan, South Slav, Orthodox. Despite 150 years of tension and conflict, neither people nourish feelings of hatred, revenge or even straight negativity towards the other.
Jokes are more often told with a “funny” tone, even if they may bear a bit of personal opinion for some of them. The most common joke, from both the Bulgarian and Serbian sides, was that “the other one stabbed us in the back”, even though they were friends. This refers to the war of 1885-1886, the Second Balkan War and to the two world wars. And even to the 1990s and 2008.
I more often hear worse comments or even hatred speech between Serbs and Croats, Bulgarians and Macedonians, Macedonians and Greeks, Turks and Greeks, than between Bulgarians and Serbs.
The populations of both countries are divided: one part is pro-Western, the other pro-Russian, to put it (very) simply (and reductive). But I think that, basically, although their international situation is not similar, Bulgarians and Serbs share at least this: their countries are not considered free enough politically-wise and both have negative demographic growth rates and are losing population.
Oh, and Bulgaria and Serbia also share this: a population that is more welcoming, more open and warmer than it is often portrayed, with rich history and nature. And plenty of surprises if you learn to discover and explore them.
Conclusion
Bulgarian-Serbian relations have always been turbulent and complex. From 1800 until 1878, they were very good because the two peoples were united in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. From 1878 onwards, following independence and because of the Macedonian question, foreign influences and the aspirations of both countries, relations became very tense and were punctuated by wars.
For almost 100 years, despite numerous reversals of alliances and influences, Bulgaria and Serbia followed different paths. At every major event in the Balkans, they were opposite.
But all is better now, and over the last 2-3 decades the two states have reconciled to the point where there are no longer any disputes troubling their relations. The two countries cooperate on the economy, trade, energy, culture and science.
Summary in dates:
1800-1877: joint struggle and mutual support in the liberation of the Balkans from Ottoman rule.
1877-1878: armed struggle, Balkan and Russian coalition against the Ottoman Empire. (Partial) liberation of the Balkans. Treaty of San Stefano and Berlin Conference: disappointments, the Serbs feel betrayed by the Russian Empire, while the Bulgarians see it as their liberator.
1885-1886: reunification of the Principality of Bulgaria with the province of Eastern Rumelia. Serbo-Bulgarian war, Bulgarian victory.
1912-1913: First Balkan War. Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece push the Ottoman Empire back to Istanbul. Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece take territories from Macedonia. The Treaty of London’s partition satisfies no-one.
1913: Second Balkan War. Serbia, Greece, the Ottoman Empire, Montenegro and Romania join forces against Bulgaria, which has attacked its neighbours. Bulgaria loses the war and new borders are drawn.
First World War: Serbia is on the side of the Entente while Bulgaria is part of the Alliance.
Second World War: Bulgaria, though reluctant, is on the side of the Axis, while Yugoslavia/Serbia is on the side of the Allies.
1945-1991: Cold War, Serbia/Yugoslavia and Bulgaria are communist states. Bulgaria was the “16th Soviet Republic” and turned towards the USSR, while Yugoslavia/Serbia went its own way and opened up to the West. Cooperation.
1990s and the Yugoslav wars: the new Republic of Bulgaria gradually turns towards the West, while Serbia closes itself and turns towards Russia.
1998-2008: Kosovo. Bulgaria does not support Serbia in its conflict with Kosovo. NATO cooperates with Bulgaria against Serbia. Bulgaria recognises Kosovo’s independence, proclaimed in 2008.
European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organisation: Bulgaria joined NATO in 2003 and the EU in 2007. Serbia is not a member of either of them, but applied for EU membership in 2009.
Since 2008: no major conflicts. Bulgaria and Serbia have normalised and calmed their relations. Cooperation.
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